Company Law

[By Amartya Sahastranshu Singh and Atika Chaturvedi] The authors are students of National University of Study and Research in Law, Ranchi.   Related party transaction [“RPT”] means “A transfer of resources, services or obligations between a reporting entity and a related party, regardless of whether a price is charged.” Simply put, RPTs are covenants between parties who share a ‘relationship’. What relationships make a party ‘related’ are already prescribed in law. Broadly, it means an ally, relative, holding company, subsidiary, an affiliated entity, etc. This concept of RPTs has quite a significance. It can create a conflict of interest between the management and the stakeholders. For instance, sometimes, dealings with related parties may occur at above or below market rates. In other words, they may not occur at an ‘arm’s length basis’. This deludes investors who rely upon the company’s financial statements. The non-disclosure of RPTs may misrepresent the company’s true financial results. Thus, disclosure is made necessary. Provisions and regulations related to RPT are widely spread across the following: Companies Act, 2013 [“the Act”] (S. 2(76), S. 177, S. 188), Securities and Exchange Board of India (Listing Obligations and Disclosure Requirements) Regulations, 2015 [“LODR”] (Regulation 23), Companies (Meeting of Board and its Powers) Rules, 2014 (Rule 15), Companies (Specifications of Definition Details) Rules, 2014, (Rule 30) and Indian Accounting Standard 24. The basic functions that these laws perform are defining the nature and scope of related parties, describing related party transactions, regulating its approval and audit aspects, and extending the concept of ‘arm’s length’. Arm’s length transactions involve two related parties acting as though they were unrelated. The rationale of these provisions is to avoid conflict of interest. However, despite various regulations, the media has pointed out the growing frequency of non-disclosure and defaults in RPT approval from listed companies. Thus, SEBI, alarmed at this development, resorted to amending the law related to RPTs. The motive behind this was strengthening corporate governance, ensuring disclosure, and protecting public interest. The foundation of this Amendment was the recommendations of the SEBI Working Group. The Amendment was ushered in 2021 on the basis of their Report dated 27th January, 2020. From a bird’s eye perspective, the amendment brought the following changes in the regulations: Earlier, a ‘promoter’ was not included in the definition of a related party. But post-amendment, promoters/promoter groups are encapsulated within the definition of ‘related party’. The definition of ‘related party’ has been amended to incorporate any party having equity shares worth 20 percent or more with effect from 1st April, 2022, and 10 percent or more with effect from 1st April, 2023, either on a direct or beneficial interest basis. SEBI expanded the term “RPT” under Regulation 2(1)(zc) of the LODR to include subsidiary transactions. A transaction between the listed entity or any of its subsidiaries and any other person or entity which benefits a related party will also constitute an “RPT” as of April 1, 2023. This provision was drawn from the UK Premium Listing Rules. The Amendment also classified transactions even between two subsidiaries (including overseas) as RPTs and subjected those to the approval of listed entity’s audit committee [“AC”]. For the approval of the AC when the estimate of every transaction that surpasses 10% of the annual consolidated turnover, according to the last audited financial statements. The materiality threshold for attaining approval of shareholders has been modified to contain transactions that surpass Rs. 1000 Crore or 10% of the annual consolidated turnover, whichever stands lower. Under this amendment, the scope of RPTs has widened. Companies and their subsidiaries now require several clearances for RPTs. This poses complications for listed several companies. It will also affect the businesses of many companies because of the general business structure of India. Most of the big corporate entities in India are managed by families or groups. As of March 2020, the average number of subsidiaries for Indian public companies has more than tripled in the last 15 years. A survey by SEBI and OECD revealed that the primary reasons for the group structure of Indian companies were ‘economies of scale’ and ‘efficient resource allocation’. This cohesive structure of Indian Companies makes RPTs a commonplace. A classic example of that is the Adani Group. Companies such as Adani Transmission and Adani Enterprises have witnessed a meteoric soar of over 1000% in their share prices. However, this phenomenal growth of the Adani Group is under question, causing a political stir. Inter alia, the group is alleged to be involved in unethical RPTs. At this juncture, it is important to deal with the concept of ‘float’. Angle One, one of India’s leading full-service retail brokers defines ‘free float’ as, “shares you can trade publicly in the secondary market or the stock exchange.” Currently, the minimum float is set at 25% of total outstanding shares as per SCRR. This ensures liquidity in the secondary markets. However, the Adani Group allegedly violated these norms. Hindenberg Research which specialises in ‘forensic financial research’ recently released a report on Adani Group. Among other irregularities, it pointed out several undisclosed RPTs. The report highlighted that the close relatives and associates of Gautam Adani, the chairman and founder of the Adani Group, were running several shell entities offshore. These entities are allegedly the largest public  (‘non-promoter’) shareholders of the Adani Group. Moreover, the research explicitly pointed out that “4 of Adani’s listed companies are on the brink of the delisting threshold due to high promoter ownership.” According to the data from the research, the following is the percentage holdings of the promoter group: Sr. Listed Entity Percentage Holding by Promoter Group 1 Adani Power 74.97% 2 Adani Total Gas 74.80% 3 Adani Transmission 74.19% 4 Adani Enterprise 72.63% As evident, about 75% of the shares are held by the promoter group. Only 25% of the total outstanding shares have been left floating. Here, those offshore shell companies come into the picture. They hold the lion’s share of the float. The public is left with very low liquidity.

[By Ankit Rao] The author is an Associate at Archer Jurists LLP.   INTRODUCTION Democracy is more than mere procedures that follow the will of the majority. Substantive democracy entails governing in the interest of all stakeholders. The concept of a holistic democracy such as this has become relevant in all spheres of life, public and private both. Thus, the corporate sector should not be exempt from democratic functioning. In a corporate democratic setup, the rule of the majority is endorsed and the will of the majority necessarily prevails. However, in the pursuit of substantive democracy, the need to balance and preserve the right of minority shareholders has been recognised and accordingly materialised by incorporating a proviso in the form of Section 241 of the Companies Act, 2013 (“Act”). As per Section 241(1)(a) of the Act, if affairs of the company are being administered in such a form so as to be deemed prejudicious to the interest of the public/company or detrimental to an individual member or all other members, it entitles the relevant member(s) to move an application before the National Company Law Tribunal (“NCLT”) seeking relief against oppression and mismanagement. In a parallel construct, under Section 241(1)(b) of the Act, relevant member(s) are also authorized to move an application before NCLT seeking relief if a material change is brought about in the company’s administration/control, which does not qualify to be in the preservation of interest of the Company, its members, creditors or any class of shareholders, and might potentially result in the affairs of the company being conducted in such a manner so as to be detrimental to the interest of company/its members. The position of being a member in a Company carries and provides for an inherent right to file an application against oppression and mismanagement and seek relief if the member duly fulfills certain statutory eligibility criteria laid down under Section 244(1) of the Act. A minimum of 100 members or 1/10th of the aggregate number of members of a company, whichever is lower, is a prerequisite to filing an application to the NCLT in case of a company having a share capital, and in case of a company not having a share capital, a minimum of 1/5th of the total number of the members is the required threshold to be entitled to move such an application. This article primarily argues for dispensing with technicalities in the pursuit of justice because rigid adherence would not be in the best interest of the company or the stakeholders. Rather, striking a balance between the procedural and substantive aspects of the law is optimal for creating an equitable environment for all stakeholders, members, and non-members both. To that end, the article will first analyse the mandatory nature of minimum shareholding criteria to move an application of oppression & mismanagement and in doing so it explores whether the right to move an application can be struck down on the basis of technical non-compliances, second it determines as to whether this right is confined to the members or it extends to potential members, third, it elaborates on the findings of Supreme Court in World Wide Agencies Pvt. Ltd. & Ors. V. Margarat T. Desor & Ors. (“World Wide Agencies”) where the Court extended the rights of deceased members to their legal representatives, even though in the register of members, the deceased member’s name exists. MANDATORY NATURE OF THE MINIMUM SHAREHOLDING ELIGIBILITY The pivotal question which arises is how rigid is the eligibility criteria for holding shares to the extent of the 10% threshold as stipulated under Section 244 of the Act. If the said threshold is not met, does it strike at the very root and viability of the application under Section 244? It does not seem inescapable and mandatory in nature, since the NCLT is empowered to waive all the requirements as specified in Section 244(1)(a) & (b) of the Act. The concerned proviso empowering the NCLT to grant waivers on Section 244 did not specify the circumstances wherein such authority can be exercised and it also does not indicate any reasoning which must be taken into account by the NCLT while granting such exemptions. To discern the obligatory nature of the minimum shareholding requirement, the object and reasoning behind prescribing a qualifying percentage of shares to entertain a petition under Section 244 need to be examined. The Supreme Court of India in J.P. Srivastava & Sons Pvt. Ltd. & Ors. V. M/s. Gwalior Sugar Co. Ltd. & Ors. [AIR 2005 SC 83] dwelled upon the said issue and held that the object of prescribing a qualifying percentage of shares to entertain petitions under Section 397 & 398 of Companies Act, 1956 which is pari materia to Section 241 & 244 of the Companies Act, 2013, was to ensure that frivolous litigation is not indulged in by persons who have no legal stake in the company. The Hon’ble Supreme Court stipulated that the guiding principle in such matters is a broad common sense approach and that there exists certain non-compliance which can be condoned or dispensed with. The Supreme Court further observed that if a Court is satisfied that the petitioner moving an application of oppression & mismanagement represents a body of Shareholders holding the requisite percentage, it can assume that involvement of the company in litigation is not lightly done and it should entertain the matter on its merit, and not reject it on a technical requirement. RIGHT TO MOVE AN APPLICATION CONFINED TO MEMBERS? Now, the material question which needs to be delved into is whether this right, specifically reserved for the members, can be enlarged and extended to include anyone who may be entitled to become a member or even just a potential member. The definition of a member as provided under Section 2(55)(a) & (b) of the Act needs to be borne in mind before probing this material question. As per Section 2(55)(a) of the Act, ‘members’ encompasses, within its domain, subscribers of a memorandum

[By Anshika Gubrele & Harsh Khanchandani] The authors are students of Bharati Vidyapeeth New Law College, Pune and Symbiosis Law School, Pune. Introduction Financial considerations have typically dictated investment choices. With the worldwide pandemic, climate change, ongoing depletion of natural resources, and many instances of fraud and scams, investors have become more aware of how environmental, social, and governance (“ESG”) factors of a commercial entity may affect its long-term financial performance. This has led to more investor demand and interest in ESG rating, ESG reporting, and ESG-related products by investors. It is in this light that the authors in Part I of this article shall attempt to discuss the Indian legal regime along with the international best practices relating to ESG disclosures and reporting standards. In the second part, the authors shall endeavor to discuss the key issues with the ESG reporting in light of the consultation paper issued by the Security Exchange Board of India (“SEBI”). Indian Framework While various laws for environmental protection[i], overall well-being of employees, equitable treatment,[ii] and corporate governance have been introduced in India at various times, there is no one consolidated law in India that covers all aspects of Environmental, Social, and Governance standards. Different laws exist for different ESG issues, but none covers all of them. The Ministry of Corporate Affairs (“MCA“) has been recommending corporations to ensure responsible corporate conduct. It published a set of recommendations known as the National Guidelines on Responsible Business Conduct (“NGRBC“), which included a set of nine responsible business conduct principles. These guidelines also specify the structure for corporate responsibility reporting, which includes the disclosures that must be made for each principle. These disclosures were designed to be used internally by businesses to measure their progress towards sustainable business practices. In addition to this, in May 2022, the MCA-established Committee on Business Responsibility Reporting (“BRR Committee“) along with SEBI vide Regulation 34(2)(f) of the Listing Regulations introduced Business Responsibility and Sustainability Report (“BRSR“), a more comprehensive reporting framework focusing on all measurable key performance indicators. The Committee has suggested two reporting forms, one comprehensive (for listed and large unlisted firms) and one lite (for smaller enterprises), all of which require disclosures in accordance with the NGRBC standards. While SEBI has issued a circular mandating the top 1,000 listed businesses to submit BRSR, the MCA has yet to provide amendments requiring unlisted entities to file BRSR. In a similar sense, the Indian Companies Act, 2013 (the “Companies Act”) has codified directors’ responsibility to the community and the environment. In specific, section 166 of the Companies Act[iii] compels a director of the firm to “act in the best interest of the community as well as the environment” and Section 135 of the Companies Act & the guidelines developed thereunder comprises a comprehensive code on every company’s corporate social responsibility. In May 2021, a Sustainable Finance Group (“SFG”) was established by the Reserve Bank of India (“RBI”) to collaborate with other national and international organizations on climate change issues with the intention of coming up with strategies and introducing a legal framework that would require banks and other regulated entities to make appropriate ESG disclosures in order to promote sustainable practices and reduce climate-related risks in the Indian economy. Finally, the Department of Economic Affairs, in January 2021, established a Task Force on Sustainable Finance to offer a thorough framework for India’s financing of sustainable methods. Additionally, it is tasked with creating a methodology for assessing the risk in the financial sector as well as a draught taxonomy of sustainable operations. Other regulatory measures include the constitution of an advisory committee by SEBI on ESG matters, taxonomy and disclosures for green bonds and a consultation paper proposing disclosure norms for mutual funds launching ESG Schemes. International Framework In India, the BRSR framework is being implemented for the purpose of governing ESG reporting. It is noteworthy that compared to systems in other Asian countries, the BRSR framework is commendable. It is important to emphasize that the responsibilities of directors in Indian companies extend beyond the shareholders and encompass other stakeholders as well.[iv] This establishes a robust legal framework for Indian corporations’ ESG reporting and allows for ongoing legislative and regulatory improvement. The move away from optional ESG reporting and towards mandated disclosures is gathering steam. Like India, which has made BRSR compulsory for its largest listed companies, China, Malaysia, and Indonesia have adopted similar regulations. Other Asian countries, like Hong Kong, have a mixed approach, requiring obligatory disclosures for specific ESG concerns but permitting a ‘compliance or explain‘ approach for climate-change issues. Finally, nations such as Singapore and Japan are attempting to migrate from ‘comply or explain‘ to obligatory reporting. In terms of disclosure substance and format certain countries including, Vietnam, Philippines, Thailand and Singapore have released ESG guidelines based on the Global Reporting Initiative standards. Japan’s approach to integrated reporting or mandating ESG disclosures in yearly reports is similar to India’s approach to the BRSR. Companies in Hong Kong are obliged to provide ESG disclosures in their annual report. Singapore, on the other hand, mandates ESG disclosures in a separate sustainability report from its listed corporations. KEY CHALLENGES WITH THE ESG REPORTING Methodological Data issues – There are major problems with the data that is being generated by corporations today,  including lack of verification, differences in the manner in which data is collected by corporations and then subsequently, reported. Generally, it creates a lack of faith by investors in quality of that data therefore, it becomes difficult to make investment decisions. The methodological quality of data is still a fundamental challenge. Lack of standardization – As a norm, companies assess environmental and social information in order to put it into Financial Year (FY) audit reports. To move data into financial reports specifically into financial statements of a report has legal, financial implications. There is relatively less reference to a standard for reporting, disclosure and materiality outside of sustainability reports. In sustainability reports, we observe reference to primarily the Global

[By Mahak Saxena] The author is a student of National Law Institute University, Bhopal. Introduction The Securities Exchange Board of India (SEBI) has been receiving numerous requests from market participants and stakeholders for an overhaul and review of legal provisions and rules related to the buyback of specified securities. In light of which it floated a consultation paper on a review of existing Buy-back Regulations (“Consultation Paper”) in November 2022. The aforementioned paper is a culmination of all suggestions given by the sub-group headed by Mr. Keki Mistry which includes sweeping reforms of the current provisions and also recommends statutory amendments for some issues. The reforms are directed towards eliminating the inefficiency of certain modes of buy-back, optimization of the deadlines, changes in the statutory limits on buy-back, and discouraging the possibility of manipulation in the market. This article attempts to specifically provide a summary and an analysis of the existing recommendations with respect to the Open Market and Tender Offer Route of Buy- back. Law Governing Buy-Backs in India and Need for Reforms Buy-Backs in India are governed by Section 68 of The Companies Act, 2013 (“the Act”), and the provisions of SEBI (Buyback of Securities) Regulations, 2018. As per the regulations, the methods of Buying back shares are through a Tender offer to existing shareholders, Open market mechanism through Book building process and Stock exchange Purchase of shares from odd-lot holders. If we look at the official numbers from SEBI, Tender Offer is by far the most used method. The reason is its nature of enabling more equitable opportunity for shareholders to reap the benefits of buyback.[1] The reforms are required because the current scheme has unnecessary procedural barriers in form of limits and approvals that lead to inefficient estimation of the price of securities, delay in the overall process, disproportionate loss to the shareholders and reduces the actual benefit that might have accrued to the shareholders from the Buyback. Glide Path for Open Market Buybacks When shares under the Open Market route are brought at the current market price, there is hardly any surety that the shareholders would be able to claim the benefits, therefore, SEBI is proposing to establish a separate window for buyback of shares. Reduction in maximum limit and closure period The main need for reducing the limit stems from the fact that while using the route of stock exchange, there is a probability that one shareholder’s entire trade will get matched with the purchase order of a company, preventing other shareholders from benefitting from the buyback which goes against the fundamental idea of fair and equitable treatment. Currently, as per Regulation 4, the Buybacks through the Open Market route are only permitted if it is less than 15% of the paid up capital and free reserves of the Company. SEBI aims to reduce this limit in a phased manner to 10% and 5% in the next two years and then aims to completely remove the Open Markets route from 2025. The aforementioned 15% limit is also proposed to be applied only to open market buybacks and not to the Book Building Route. However, the open market route should not be completely phased out as it provides more flexibility for selling a higher quantum of shares over a longer period of time due to which the companies as well as investors find it easier to execute. Though the proposal for reducing the current time period of 6 months between the opening and closing of Buyback offer is rational as it addresses the concerns of artificial demand and exaggerated prices of shares and will lead to effective discovery of price. Contradiction in proposals: Utilization of Amount and Restrictions on Volume and price. On one hand, SEBI proposes that the company should achieve the minimum buyback threshold (75% of the buyback size) within a fixed time period; but at the same time, it places restrictions on the volume, price and time (No share purchases to be made in the first and last 30 minutes of the regular trading hours) at which it can buy from the market. Hence, these proposals should be revaluated. Through Tender Offer Route Permission to Revise Offer Price and Removal of SEBI Review Process: A welcome Change Since there is a considerable time gap between the approval of Buy back and the actual opening of the offer, it is a justifiable suggestion that revision be allowed. However, an increase in buyback price will lead to a decrease in the number of securities, which negatively impacts the shareholders. Hence, along with price, the companies should be permitted to increase the aggregate buyback size as well. Presently, Regulation 8 requires a draft letter of offer to be submitted to the SEBI for review. A window is provided to the SEBI to submit its comments which are later incorporated. However, in order to reduce the time and ease the procedure, the SEBI review process is proposed to be removed, though the merchant bankers will be mandatorily required to certify compliance with the regulations in the Letter and to the SEBI before the offers open. Another reasonable proposal is the specification of a time limit of 2 days within which the escrow account has to be opened after the public announcement. Other Major Recommendations Presently, the regulations allow only one Buyback in a 12-month period,[2] however, the sub group recommends reducing the cooling off period to six months for the tender offer route. This is a welcome move as the companies may need to give out surplus cash to the shareholders more than once in a year. However, it is to be noted that such exemptions have been proposed only for companies which are net debt free.[3]The phrase Net Debt Free essentially refers to a company with cash reserves and cash balances that, according to its accounts, as audited by a statutory auditor, exceed its borrowings and contingent liabilities. The reserves here include bank deposits, government securities, units of mutual funds investing in gilt funds.

[By Arham Anwar & Akshay Tiwari] The authors are students of National Law University, Jodhpur. Introduction To fly by night is to pack up whatever you can from the dubious business that you have been carrying and leave under the cover of darkness. So people who have been observing you running your business one day see an empty address with no sign of the business the very next day, leaving behind panicked investors who have no clue about what is happening with the money they had invested into the company. The term fly-by-night is not specifically defined anywhere in the Companies Act per se but according to the Cambridge Dictionary’s definition a fly by night business is “not able to be trusted and likely to stop operating without any notice”. A fly by Night Company is essentially an unreliable or unscrupulous company which is generally short lived, and once it has raised a minimum amount of money through the market it flies away defrauding its investors. The common modus operandi that these types of companies follow to raise funds is to issue IPOs in the primary market and wait for investors. Once they reach the point where a sufficient level of funding has been extracted according to the level and scale of the operations being run, they pack up in the night leaving behind no trace, and thus it becomes difficult for the regulatory authorities to trace back these entities or held them responsible for their acts. According to the definition provided in the MCA website a company is categorised as a vanishing or fly-by-night company the following scenarios. A company fails to file returns with the Registrar of Companies (ROC) for two years. A listed company fails to file returns with the stock exchange for two years. The company doesn’t maintain its registered office at the address mentioned with the RoC. The company’s directors cannot be traced. There has been a surge in the number of these kinds of entities in recent times and the list keeps on increasing, aggravating the agony of the small investors who came in with the motive of earning returns on their investment but are now seen running from pillar to post to get justice and make these fraudulent companies liable. In light of their plight, there have been a growing number of efforts taken by the regulatory authorities in the last few years to curb this menace. In the series of various legislative and policy reforms, there has been this recent amendment of the Companies(Incorporation) Third Amendment Rules, 2022 (Henceforth “2022 Rules”).  Efforts being taken There has been a series of continuous efforts that has been taken in order to solve the problem of fly by night companies right from the beginning. In order to promote and raise the standards of good corporate governance, SEBI established a committee in 1999 Shri Kumar Mangalam Birla, a member of the SEBI Board, served as the committee’s chair. The committee’s main goals were to view corporate governance from the perspective of investors and shareholders and to create a “Code” that would suit the Indian corporate environment In the year 2006 following measures were added to the then Companies Act 1956 by Ministry of Corporate Affairs to check the incident of Vanishing companies: Sections 266A to 266G were added making it mandatory for every existing or prospective director to obtain a “Director Identification Number” so that traceability of the directors is ensured. Sections 153 to 159 of the 2013 Act contain the provisions relating to the Director Identification Number. In case of incorporation of a new company or change of address of an existing company, Ministry has made it mandatory for the professionals verifying its details to personally visit the premises and certify that the premises are indeed at the disposal of the company. Further, in such cases, proof of registered address has also been made mandatory to be furnished at the time of incorporation or change of registered address. Instructions have also been issued to the Registrars of Companies to scrutinise the Balance Sheets and other records of the Companies which raise money through public issue so as to monitor the utilisation of such frauds. Increasing instances of vanishing companies has also led to the formation of Serious Fraud investigation Office (SFIO) which was granted statutory status by the Companies Act 2013. There was a need felt for an organisation which would focus entirely on solving such complex white collar crimes. It is against this backdrop that the Government decided to set up the SFIO. Registered Office Every company is required to keep a registered office that can receive and acknowledge any government notices pursuant to Section 12 of the Companies Act 2013. During a company’s incorporation, the directors of this entity must specify their registered office in their Memorandum of Association and keep certain records there. The location of the registered office becomes significant as the Registrar of Companies to which the applicant must apply for company registration will be determined by the state in which the company’s registered office is located. Any change to the company’s address or location of the registered office must be reported to the RoC within a certain time frame. The Companies Act has been amended vide the Companies (Amendment) Act, 2019 to provide a procedure for physical checks. A Registrar of Companies (ROC ) has the authority to physically inspect a company’s registered office in accordance with Section 12 (9) of the Companies Act if they have sufficient reason to suspect that the company in question is not conducting business for which it was incorporated To further enhance the Companies (Incorporation) Rules of 2014, the Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA) has published the 2022 Rules on August 18, 2022. With this modification, the MCA has established a new Rule 25B which pertains to the physical verification of the company’s registered office, i.e., the primary office of the firm, to which all correspondence pertaining to it will be sent by governmental agencies. This new rule will help in curbing the problem as now it will be difficult for these dubious firms to go untraceable as

[By Arham Anwar & Suvanwesh Das] The authors are students of the National Law University, Jodhpur and the National Law University, Odisha. Introduction We have always seen doctor’s job as a noble profession but with changing times new questions of law have evolved and new dynamics have been added to supposedly simple concepts. This article seeks to address the issue of whether consultants like doctors can be issued ESOPs under provisions of Companies Act, 2013. This question is especially pertinent because after the COVID-19 pandemic the world has seen rapid emergence of companies providing health care and pathological services. Thus, new complexities have arisen as to whether doctors employed by these companies can be treated as an “employee” .Also if they come under the ambit of employees then can they be given all the benefits that employees of any company are eligible to. The article will first discuss the legal provisions pertaining to ESOPs and the definition of employee(s) under different legislations andthen  relevant case laws will also be taken into consideration as to whether doctors can come under the ambit of employee(s) and finally conclude with our findings. Legal Provisions Pertaining to ESOPs Employees Stock option is defined under Section 2(37) of the Companies Act, 2013 as an “option given to the directors, officers or employees of a company or of its holding company or subsidiary company or companies, if any, which gives such directors, officers or employees, the benefit or right to purchase, or to subscribe for, the shares of the company at a future date at a pre-determined price”. Rule 12 of Companies (Share Capital and Debentures) Rules, 2014 talks about of issue of employee stock options-“A company, other than a listed company, which is not required to comply with Securities and Exchange Board of India Employee Stock Option Scheme Guidelines shall not offer shares to its employees under a scheme of employees’ stock option (hereinafter referred to as “Employees Stock Option Scheme”), unless it complies with the following requirements, namely:-(1) the issue of Employees Stock Option Scheme has been approved by the shareholders of the company by passing a special resolution. Explanation: For the purposes of clause (b) of sub-section (1) of section 62 and this rule ‘‘Employee’’ Means a permanent employee of the company who has been working in India or outside India; or a director of the company, whether a whole-time director or not but excluding an independent director; or an employee as defined in clauses (a) or (b) of a subsidiary, in India or outside India, or of a holding company of the company but does not include- an employee who is a promoter or a person belonging to the promoter group; or a director who either himself or through his relative or through any body corporate, directly or indirectly, holds more than ten percent of the outstanding equity shares of the company” As per section 62(1) (b) of the Companies Act, an unlisted private limited company can issue further shares to employees under the scheme of Employees Stock Option (“ESOPs”), pursuant to a special resolution. If we look at Rule 12 of (Share and Debentures) Rules 2014 it clearly says that ESOPs can only be issued to an employee and Rule 12(1) goes on to define who can be called an employee. A plain reading of Rule 12 (1)(c) of the same talks about entities which are not to be counted as an employee and after reading all these provisions we can very well conclude that doctors can come under the ambit of employee under Rule 12 of (Share and Debentures) Rules 2014. If we read Rule 1(4) of the Securities and Exchange Board of India (Share Based Employee Benefits and Sweat Equity) Regulations, 2021, it specifies that it can be applied to any company whose equity shares are listed on a recognised stock exchange in India ,further Rule 2(i) of the same defines the term “employee “.AlsoRule 4 makes any employee eligible to participate in the schemes of the company as determined by the compensation committee. Here also no bar regarding inclusion of doctors can be observed. In addition to that, SEBI suggested that definition of “employee” should be changed to include non-permanent employees provided that they are designated as employees by their employers and are exclusively working with such company or its group company including subsidiary or its associate company or its holding company in ESOPs benefits as was reflected in SEBI FAQs. It is also important to note that present regulations such as The Indian Medical Council (Professional Conduct, Etiquette and Ethics) Regulations, 2002 relating to Professional Conduct of Registered Medical Practitioners don’t contain any explicit restrictions that prevent doctor(s) from being engaged as an employee(s). On top of that Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare launched ICMR/DHR Policy on Biomedical Innovation & Entrepreneurship for Medical Professionals, Scientists and Technologists at Medical, Dental, Para-Medical Institutes/Colleges. According to the policy, medical experts and doctors will be encouraged to explore entrepreneurial endeavours by building start-up firms, accepting adjunct positions in Companies as Non-Executive Directors or Scientific Advisors, or by joining them as Scientific Advisors. The doctors will also be allowed to work alone or through companies on inter-institutional and industry projects, licence technologies to corporations for commercialization, and generate income for their own support as well as the benefit of society. The medical professionals will also be allowed to take a break to translate and commercialise their innovations through the establishment of their start-up companies with the medical institute’s approval in which they may be working. The goal of this policy is to support entrepreneurship growth and the development of Make-in-India products while also promoting interdisciplinary collaboration, innovation, technological development, and skill development. As we look at catena of judgements given by different High Courts, position pertaining to status of doctors as an employee will be clarified. Case Laws In the case of Commissioner of Income Tax (TDS), Pune vs. Grant Medical Foundation, the issue of law which arose was

[By Saaransh Shukla & Isabel John] The authors are the students of the Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies. INTRODUCTION As we all know, share capital is the main source of finance for companies. Since companies may need additional amounts of money periodically, they cannot issue shares every time. However, they can raise money from the public. Around the world, companies, organizations, corporations and other entities raise money from different sources for the purpose of financing. As we all know, share capital is the primary source of funding for businesses. Since businesses may require additional funds on a regular basis, they cannot issue shares every time. They can, however, raise funds from the general public. Companies, organisations, businesses, and other entities all over the world raise funds from various sources in order to finance their operations. In this article, one such means of raising capital, i.e., ‘Wimbledon Debentures’ is considered. With the elucidation of the concept of the Wimbledon Debentures, the proposition is further assessed in relation to the Indian debt market. The paper explores if the Wimbledon Debenture model could be inculcated in the different industries in India, whether such debt financing would be useful and the issues that may occur in its practical application. WHAT ARE WIMBLEDON DEBENTURES? It’s Not A Bond, Not A Stock, Not A Ticket – It’s A “Wimbledon Debenture” The word ‘debenture’ has been derived from the Latin word ‘debere’ which means to borrow. The debenture is a written instrument acknowledging a debt under the common seal of the company. The money raised from the public is a loan that is further divided into units of small denominations. Each unit is called a ‘debenture’ and the holder of such units is called a Debenture holder. Even though the cash raised by debentures turn into a part of the organization’s capital structure, it doesn’t get to be share capital. Therefore, debentures are a widely recognized type of long haul credit that can be taken out by a company. These credits are regularly repayable on a date and pay a fixed rate of interest. Generally, debentures are issued for starting new projects, expansion of the company, refurbishments or improvements of the company, mergers, acquisitions, etc. Swen Lorenz, the author of the blog ‘Undervalued Shares’ claimed that the Wimbledon Debenture is a very quirky security and rightfully so. The Wimbledon Debentures are unsecured but still if we see the last trading price of one debenture was 110,600£, that is huge for an unsecured debt. The Wimbledon Debentures have played a significant role in the history of Wimbledon. The money raised from issuing these Debentures funds the improvements in and around the Wimbledon Grounds solely for the benefit of the esteemed guests. By the purchase of each Debenture, the holder is provided with a premium seat on Centre Court or No.1 Court for the Championships for a period of five years. With the increasing popularity of the sport and the ever-burgeoning public demand, the AELTC raised funds via debentures to purchase and expand their grounds. Presently, the Championships from 2021-2025 are covered under the current series of the Centre Court Wimbledon Debentures. Usually, subscribing to an issue of debentures or bonds requires coughing up a cash investment. But with Wimbledon Debentures, one can pay the cash in phases throughout the duration of the debentures and there is no interest rate payment. Technically speaking, the debentures are zero-coupon debt security that comes with the dividend in the form of ‘tickets’. Then the debenture holders receive access to the best sought-after seats for five years with no additional payment, access to exclusive restaurants and bars, car parking, transferable tickets, etc. As a holder, the daily tickets can either be sold privately or can be transferred to anyone at any price. In April 2018, the Centre Court Wimbledon Debentures (2016-2020) were trading at over £100,000 each. The Wimbledon Debentures model is slightly distinct from the usual debt financing carried out by companies. In comparison to the way debentures are normally issued, the Wimbledon Debentures pay no interest over the life of the security, instead, they are entirely in the form of tickets. As per the prevailing laws, the Debentures are also exempt from the Capital Gains Tax.[1] Looking at the success rate of this form of raising funds, it will be interesting to see if some other companies or corporations engage in debt financing similar to the Wimbledon Debentures model. WIMBLEDON DEBENTURES MODEL – INDIAN PERSPECTIVE According to the Companies Act (2013), the term debenture is defined under Section 2(30). Generally, debentures are issued for starting new projects, expansion of the company, refurbishments or improvements of the company, mergers, acquisitions, etc. Firstly, the Wimbledon Debentures fall within the definition of Qualifying Corporate Bonds (QCBs). In layman terms QCBs are exempted from capital gain taxes. In many countries including India, bonds and debentures are used interchangeably but they have certain differences. Bonds are issued generally by government agencies/large corporations but debentures are issued by companies. Bonds are backed by assets and are thus, secured, unlike debentures which may or may not be backed by assets (secured or unsecured). In debentures, the rates of interest are generally higher when compared to bonds. Additionally, the risk factor is lower for bonds and during repayments, bondholders are given priority over debenture holders. It is pertinent to note that the Wimbledon Debentures are unsecured, but people still purchase them. In the Indian market, the Securities and Exchange Board of India (“SEBI”) has made the process of buying and selling secured debentures difficult for the potential holders. Thus, it is assumed that companies may shift to issuing unsecured debentures in the market and making the technical process easier. Under the provisions of the Companies Act (2013) of India, the power to issue debentures can be exercised on behalf of the Company with a meeting of the Board as per Section 179 (3). Section 71 is related to the issuance of debentures along with the penalties for

[By Amarpal Singh & Abhishek Attri] The authors are students at UPES Dehradun. INTRODUCTION A person can be appointed as an additional or alternate director in the company without being a member (“non-member director”) as per Section 161 of the Companies Act, 2013 (“Companies Act”). Further Section 169 of the Companies Act provides the procedure for the removal of directors. In case the non-member director is illegally removed from the company, traditionally, the remedy available to him would have been to approach the civil court.  Au contraire, after the establishment of the National Company Law Tribunal (“NCLT”), it has been conferred with exclusive jurisdiction over all company matters under Section 430 of the Companies Act. Further, the jurisdiction of the civil courts has been barred. In a situation where an application is made by a member under Section 241, provided the requirements stated in Section 244 of the Companies Act must be satisfied, the NCLT has the power to regulate the affairs of the company under Section 242 of the Companies Act.  In case, a non-member director is illegally removed from the company, he cannot approach the NCLT under Section 241 considering he is not a member of the company. In addition, he will be rendered remediless since the jurisdiction of the civil court is barred under Section 430. The above question of law is pending before the Supreme Court of India (“Supreme Court”) in the case of Manish Kumar v. Topworth Urja & Metals Limited. The courts have expressed divergent views on the aforementioned proposition which has led to certain confusion. This article aims to provide an analysis of the above proposition of law.  Facts Two persons were appointed as additional directors of Topworth Urja & Metals Limited. Manish Kumar (“Appellant”) alleged that the appointment of additional directors was done in contravention of provisions of the Companies Act, 2013, and the Article of Association of the company. He alleged that the appointment was done without his knowledge and by passing a resolution at the purported board meeting. Subsequently, the appointment was ratified by passing a special resolution in the Annual General Meeting. The Appellant aggrieved by the irregularities had filed a suit before the civil court seeking the appointment of directors as illegal and void ab initio. The civil court denied the relief claimed by the Appellant along with a direction to approach NCLT in view of Section 430 of the Companies Act.  The Appellant instead of approaching the NCLT had filed an appeal before the Bombay High Court (“HC”). He contended that he cannot approach the NCLT for seeking relief under Section 241 of the Companies Act as the right rightfully available to the member as per Section 242 of the Companies Act. The Appellant did not fall under the definition of the member as prescribed by Section 2(55) of the Companies Act, 2013. Therefore, the following issue arose before the HC.  Issue Whether a non-member director can approach the civil court for seeking relief against the oppressive acts of the company?  Decision The Bombay HC relied on the decision of the Madras HC in the case of Chiranjeevi Rathnam v. Ramesh and held that the word “any member” used in Section 241 of the Companies Act, 2013 should not be interpreted in a confined way as it may lead to abuse in regards to the process of law. Any person who is interested in the management of the company should not be restricted to approach the NCLT because of the words employed in Section 241 i.e., “any member”. Under Section 242, the NCLT is expected to exercise its power upon an application preferred by any member of the company.  It was further held by the Bombay HC that Section 430 of the Companies Act has to be read along with Section 241. Section 430 bars the jurisdiction of civil courts in respect of any matter which the NCLT or the National Company Law Appellate Tribunal (“NCLAT”) is empowered to determine by or under the Companies Act. The word “any matter” used in Section 430 is of the widest amplitude and includes all company matters. Therefore, the HC dismissed the appeal.  ANALYSIS In the case of Jithendra Parlapalli v. Wirecard India (P) Ltd., the same question arose before the NCLT Chennai bench i.e., whether a non-member director can file a petition for oppression and mismanagement. The applicant relied on the decision of Madras HC in the case of Chiranjeevi Rantham v. Ramesh and contended that the word “any member used in Section 241 of the Companies Act should not be read in a confined way. The NCLT distinguished the case of Chiranjeevi by giving detailed reasoning and held that in the case of Chiranjeevi the judgment was passed by the Madras HC by taking into consideration the facts and circumstances of that particular case. Further, it was held that the case of Chiranjeevi included intermingled issues of a member director adopting a non-member director. Consequently, it was held by the NCLT that a non-member director cannot file an application for oppression and mismanagement as the legislature in its wisdom has granted the right to file an application alleging acts of oppression and mismanagement only to the “members” of the company. If non-member directors are allowed to file an application alleging acts of oppression and mismanagement the intention of the legislature will be defeated and it would lead to torrent of litigation. Therefore, due to the divergent views of the courts, the position of law is still not clear leading to confusion. Illegal removal/ appointment of a director is an act of oppression and mismanagement The NCLAT in the case of Vijaya Hospital C. Kity & Resorts & Ors v. Sibi C.K & Ors.,  held that appointment of a Chairman and Managing Director without holding a board meeting is in non-compliance with the provisions of the Companies Act. Therefore, it amounts to an act of oppression. Similarly, in the present case, the appointment of additional directors was done in

[By Unnati Sinha] The author is a student at the Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies (NMIMS). Introduction The Consolidated Foreign Direct Investment Policy (Hereinafter as “FDI Policy”) underwent a significant revision as of April 18, 2020, according to Press Note 3 of 2020 (Hereinafter as “PN 3”) published by the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (Hereinafter as “DPIIT”). In the past year, there has been a lot of investor interest in the controversial topic of the release of Press Note 3 of 2020. In light of the recent outbreak of the Covid-19 and escalating geopolitical tensions with China, the Indian government has announced that any investment or purchase by a company headquartered in a nation that shares a land border with India, or if the “beneficial owner” of the investment is located in a country that shares a land border with India, would require prior clearance. Even though the wording used was generic in nature and did not specifically mention any particular jurisdiction, the Press Note’s purpose and “target” seemed to be obvious. It was believed to be in response to the People’s Bank of China gradually increasing its stake in HDFC, India’s biggest non-banking mortgage provider, to over 1% via on-market acquisitions. The Press Note also served as the first in a line of actions taken against Chinese investments and investors, which was followed by the banning of several Chinese apps because they were involved in activities “prejudicial to the sovereignty and integrity of India, defence of India, security of the state and public order.” The publication of the Press Note has immense impact on blocking Chinese investment, its primary goal.Some of the most important investments, in addition to Chinese investors, include investors from Hong Kong and Taiwan, who also seemed to get trapped. It was also unclear how the phrase “beneficial owner” should be construed, which further causes more ambiguities. Consequently, authorized dealer banks in India—who serve as the custodians for foreign investment inflows and outflows—adopted their own viewpoints or variations of present rules, which were not ideal for their needs. In the light of the changes in the FDI policy and Press Note 3, the article discusses how India has created a barrier for Chinese investments in India. The “Beneficial Owner” controversy The current uncertainty over the definition of “beneficial ownership” under PN 3 has sparked discussion on the requirements for determining a beneficial owner. Regarding the threshold amounts of investment needed to determine whether an application for FDI needs government approval, multiple opinions seem to prevail at the moment. According to the first viewpoint, a beneficial owner is individual or any entity that owns at least 10% of a company’s stock. This opinion is based on the requirements of the Companies (Significant Beneficial Owners) Rules 2018 when combined with the Companies Act of 2013. The concept of “significant beneficial owner” has been adopted from those provisions. The requirements included in India’s anti-money laundering framework serve as the foundation for the opposing perspective on beneficial ownership. This opinion is based on a provision in the Prevention of Money Laundering (Maintenance of Records) Rules 2005, which defines a “beneficial owner” as a person with either a controlling ownership interest—more than 25% ownership of the entity—or the ability to exercise control over the entity’s management or policy decisions. It may be contended that because Foreign Exchange Management (Hereinafter as “FEM”) rules do not specify a threshold for defining beneficial ownership, a nominal or minor beneficial ownership held by an individual who resides in or is a citizen of a country that borders India could possibly lead to the entire body of funds being prohibited from investment in India under the automatic route. While the government has made it clear that in the realm of public procurement, beneficial ownership is to be understood in accordance with the Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 (Hereinafter as “PMLA”), clarification regarding Press Note 3 is still expected. It is expected that the majority of the pooled investment vehicles have stakeholders, such as limited partners, managers, or donors located in China, notably in Hong Kong, given the commercial prominence of China in general and of locations like Hong Kong in particular. China has recently played a significant role in India’s private equity industry by supporting a number of famous businesses and unicorns. The China ingredient Evidently, the goal of the policy is to avoid a bigger Chinese presence in important Indian industries. There has been at least 26 billion dollars’ worth of Chinese investment in India. When HDFC notified stock markets that the People’s Bank of China had grown its investment in HDFC from 0.8% to 1.01% in mid-April, the warning bells went off in India. As it aggressively sought information on foreign portfolio investments from Asian nations, the Securities and Exchange Board of India (Hereinafter as “SEBI”) subsequently shifted its attention to the quantity of Chinese investments in Indian enterprises. These specifics involve whether Chinese investors control the funds and if investors from these nations have any kind of controlling stake. Chinese state-owned enterprises have large reserves and deep coffers, which raise fears that they may purchase crucial companies whose values have degraded in their own countries. The COVID-19 pandemic has paralyzed the economies of most of the countries, yet the Chinese economy has demonstrated resiliency. Even before the crisis, governments were becoming concerned about global supply networks’ over-reliance on China. The COVID-19 pandemic has raised concerns about the over-reliance on China for global supply networks, including India’s. India and some other nations bought Chinese rapid test kits due to a shortage. However, these kits proved to be unstable. India reportedly canceled the purchase of these kits. A prospective Indian-CFIUS? National security issues are now more prevalent than ever, affecting practically every aspect of life. For any foreign investment, some jurisdictions have a particular screening mechanism that examines the transaction from the perspective of national security. One such interagency organization that examines foreign investments in the US to see if they pose a danger