Mergers & Acquisitions

[By Shaurya Jha] The author is a student of Hidayatullah National Law University, Raipur.   Introduction With the Indian Space Industry’s expected target to reach $40 billion by 2040, funding roadblocks stand as the major hurdle. Conventional financial mechanisms are misaligned with the commercial requirements of space ventures. Bank loans require collateral and predictable income, constraining early-stage space startups. Venture capital, on the other hand, demands short-term to medium-term exit (5–7 years). This has necessitated the industry to react with the accelerated usage of Special Purpose Acquisition Companies, or SPACs – a mechanism that facilitates the company to go for a public listing and fundraising even before the acquisition target is recognized. The end goal of a SPAC is to capitalize on shareholders and PIPE funding to purchase an operating company, which has marked a watershed phase in modern corporate capital acquisition, breaking outside conventional methods like IPOs.   SPACs, informally known as “blank-check companies,” are publicly listed entities created entirely to converge with or take over a pre-existing corporation, thereby aiding its swift transition to public trade venues. Space technology has surfaced as an alluring industry for cooperatives focusing on developing satellite constellations, reusable rockets, and space travel industry services that conventional funding avenues falter to provide. Notable space technology SPAC transactions include Virgin Galactic, the first publicly traded commercial spaceflight company, which went public via a $1.5 billion SPAC merger in 2019. Similarly, Rocket Lab’s SPAC merger underscored the sector’s promise, enabling the company to expand its small satellite launch capabilities. However, India lacks regulations dedicated to SPACs, resulting in uncertainties for the investors of space-tech markets, and the current legislation makes the process of capitalizing on the financing model difficult due to the imposition of compliance barriers.  Through the means of this article, the author analyses the convergence of SPACs and Space technology. Subsequently, the author deliberates on the legal regulatory dimensions of space technology SPACs in the Indian context and the challenges and risks of space technology SPACs in India, and the author concludes the article by discussing the future of SPACs in India’s space industry.  The Intersection of SPACs and Space Technology The concept remains to be evolving in India, despite gaining global traction, India is yet to develop a definitive legislation for SPACs within concrete guidelines. The vacuum further limits the Indian startups, specifically the capitally intensive ones, from exploring this alternative route to markets.   Unlike traditional IPOs, SPACs enable privately listed companies—particularly those in fledging industries—to circumvent lengthy supervisory scrutiny and facilitate significant funding within months. In 2020 and 2021, SPACs collectively raised over $160 billion globally, with several transactions targeting innovative industries such as the space sector. The SPACs are now venturing into innovative sectors, with space technology being a key area of focus. For instance, Lynk Global, a company specializing in satellite communications, announced its merger with Slam Corp, a SPAC. The convergence, valuing Lynk at $800 million, aims to finance the low earth orbit satellite constellation. The space sector has its unique impediments, like substantial capital requirements coupled with long development deadlines, thus making SPACs an ideal financial mechanism to close the divide between pioneering cooperatives and funding ecosystems in India. These deals reflect the rising investor confidence in private space companies and highlight SPACs’ role in democratizing access to the space economy. The promising convergence of SPAC and the Space technology of India provides a humongous opportunity for technological advancement and growth. SPACs, which provide an efficient process for private cooperatives to be open to the public or civic and access capital, have been and will be pivotal in developing the global space industry. Companies such as SpaceX have demonstrated the commercial viability of reusable rockets, while satellite ventures promise to bridge the global digital divide. SPACs enable these firms to secure the necessary capital to scale operations and innovate rapidly. As projected, the space economy is estimated to reach $ 1 trillion by 2040, facilitated by space-based internet systems, satellite technology, and even lunar exploration.   The Indian space economy targets a fivefold expansion in the next two decades; harnessing the prowess of SPACs could accelerate the transition to a full-scale commercial enterprise, strengthening global competitiveness. SPACs allow the private Indian space-tech corporations to step into the humongous market, making sure that the Indian space-based industry is suitably financed so that India remains at the place of prominence in space exploration. As the aspirations mature, the regulation of SPACs should not be assessed economically but legally as the determinant of their success.    Legal and Regulatory Dimensions of Space Technology SPACs in India In defiance of the global acceptance, the regulatory environment of India persists to be limited. In contrast to major countries like the United States of America, where SPACs have been accepted as a major tool of financial transactions.   Despite the readiness around investments driven by SPAC in the space sector, the Indian  Investor continues to face intimidating difficulties due to the lack of a formalized and dedicated framework which engender legal roadblocks for the space-tech corporations willing to go public via SPAC.   Assessing Section 26 of SEBI ICDR Regulations, 2018, which places a requisite of exhaustive financial disclosures as well as past earnings, presents an overwhelming challenge for space-based startups as unlike the conventional commercial corporation, these startup make take years to make the transition from prototype to product due to the long term R&D investment with limited immediate funds, making the adherence to the IPO eligibility, counterproductive. \  While Regulation 2(s) of the International Financial Services Centres Authority (Issuance and Listing of Securities) Regulations, 2021 defines a SPAC and allows SPACs to be listed on IFSCs, it lacks the sectoral guidance for the capital-intensive sectors. In defiance of a consultation paper issued by SEBI, no formal rules have yet been notified. Absence of such provisions prevents the alignment with the upfront R&D investment and extensive development cycles of commercial space in India. By contrast, in major jurisdictions such as the United States of America, the Securities

[By Devina Somani & Manikya Manaswini] The former is a student at Jindal Global Law School and the latter is a practising lawyer.   The Merger Motive: What was Behind the Strategic Union of Zee and Sony? On 22nd December 2021, a Merger Corporation Agreement was entered into between, Zee Entertainment Enterprises Limited (“ZEEL”), Bangla Enterprises Private Limited (“BEPL”) and Sony Pictures Entertainment Networks (“SPNI”). The merger between Zee and Sony aimed to establish the second-largest media entity in India, trailing only Disney India & Star in market share.   The merger was anticipated to grant the combined entity improved access to cash flows and bolstered capital. The merger provided a redemption opportunity for Subhash Chandra & family (the promoter shareholders of Zee), whose ownership stake had diminished to just 4% owing to compelled share sales aimed at settling debts. For Zee’s creditors, the merger offered a potential avenue to recover some of their investments, especially given Zee’s precarious financial standing due to high debt levels within its holding company, Essel Group.   On the other hand, Sony’s loss of broadcasting rights to the Indian Premier League (“IPL”) had a considerable impact on its revenue stream. The merger with Zee offered Sony a chance to bounce back from these setbacks and regain momentum in the Indian market.   This Article highlights the multiple factors contributing to the merger fallout, elucidating the enforcement actions taken by the Securities Exchange Board of India (“SEBI”) against Subhash Chandra and Puneet Goenka (the promoters of Zee). Additionally, it underscores the breach of multiple conditions by Zee which were within the Merger Corporation Agreement signed by both the entities, which led to the erosion of Sony’s confidence in Zee and its subsequent withdrawal from the merger. Furthermore, the piece explores the broader implications of this debacle on mergers in the Indian Media Industry, providing a comprehensive analysis of its potential repercussions.  What led to the Merger Falling through? The collapse of the proposed $10 billion merger between Sony and Zee has exposed a labyrinth of intricate issues, from regulatory investigations to shareholder activism, shedding light on the complexities of corporate governance, financial transparency, and strategic decision-making in Cross-Border Mergers and Acquisitions in the Media and Entertainment Industry. Sony cited Zee’s failure to meet specified financial thresholds and a perceived lack of commercial prudence, deeming the breaches substantive rather than procedural. Moreover, Sony highlighted Zee’s inability to realistically assess the timeline to resolve outstanding issues, leading to the termination of their merger plans after two years of negotiations.  The heart of the issue lies with investigations by the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) into Zee which has led to allegations of fund diversion and non-disclosure of financial information. The discovery of a significant discrepancy of $241 million missing from Zee’s accounts without any traceable history raised serious concerns about the company’s financial transparency and management integrity, casting doubt on its ability to uphold regulatory compliance.   SEBI’s enforcement order dated 25th April, 2023, against Shirupur Gold Refinery, where it was alleged that Mr. Subhash Chandra’s company further engaged in the diversion of funds from lenders to companies controlled by the family. Following a complaint received by SEBI in February 2021, an independent examination by the National Stock Exchange (NSE) revealed planned transactions with connected entities, nearly 100% of the company’s debtors being linked to the promoter family, and initiation of insolvency proceedings by connected entities against major debtors. In June 2023, SEBI issued an interim order barring Mr. Chandra and Mr. Goenka from holding directorship or key managerial positions in listed entities, citing allegations of fund diversion from the listed entity.   In M&A, decisions regarding leadership appointments are critical junctures that can significantly shape the future trajectory of the combined entity. Typically, these decisions are guided by various factors such as, strategic vision of the acquiring or merging entity, the distribution of majority shareholding, compatibility of leadership styles, track record and expertise of key individuals, as well as considerations of maintaining balance and harmony within the combined organization. The initial selection of Punit Goenka as CEO, despite allegations of financial impropriety and subsequent regulatory actions, suggests potential oversights in evaluating leadership suitability.   Further, Zee’s ownership of two subsidiaries in Russia prior to the merger announcement posed a challenge for Sony, as an American entity legally restricted from engaging with businesses tied to Moscow. The failure of Zee to dispose its Russian assets, despite explicit provisions in the merger agreement prohibiting dealings with entities from countries under US sanctions, throws light on challenges of strategic misalignment during cross-border mergers stemming from divergent political considerations.   The Zee-Sony merger negotiations faced another significant hurdle with Zee’s decision in 2022 to ink a substantial $1.4 billion deal with Disney, securing specific TV cricket rights for India. Sony raised objections, citing emails that detailed Zee’s plan to provide a bank guarantee and a deposit amounting to $406 million for the acquisition of these cricket rights. This move by Zee to finance the deal through debt, undertaken without prior written consent from Sony, elevated their company’s total debt to over $451 million, surpassing the threshold specified in the merger agreement. Sony’s objection to Zee’s unilateral decision to enter into the agreement and take on additional debt exceeding the limit as mentioned in the merger agreement without prior consent highlights the lack of adherence to the conditions as outlined in the Merger Agreement.   Implications of the Merger Fallout on Cross-Border Mergers & The Media Industry in India The fallout from the collapsed Sony-Zee merger has sent shockwaves through the Indian media industry, reverberating across the financial landscape and raising significant concerns for investors. The episode underscores the need for foreign investors to exercise caution when engaging in deals within the Indian market, as regulatory complexities and governance issues has resulted in substantial risks.   One of the most glaring examples cited in the aftermath of the failed merger is the cautionary tale of Daiichi Sankyo Co.’s experience with Ranbaxy Laboratories Ltd. Despite a substantial investment

[By Aditi Kundu & Prithviraj Chatterjee] The authors are students of Hidayatullah National Law University, Raipur.   Introduction Passed on 11th August 2023, the Digital Personal Data Protection Act of 2023 (‘the Act’) envisages to regulate the intricacies of digital personal data processing. Once enforced, through this act the government aims to recognise the rights of individuals regarding their personal data and at the same time ensures personal data processing entities lawfully carry out their operations. Such entities apart from adhering to their obligations under the Act will also have to oversee its compliance during Mergers and Acquisitions (‘M&A’) transactions. While navigating the contours of the Act, the Authors will also analyse multi-fold implications on M&A transactions concerning Buyer Company, Seller Company and Legal Advisors. Finally, a clear picture would be visible by a sectoral study of M&A transactions occurring in the Financial Sector.    Overview of the DPDP Act, 2023 The main focus revolves around the protection of Digital Personal Data which is any piece of information in a digital medium that identifies/relates to an individual. The data stored by an entity is susceptible to mishandling and breach of privacy during various formalities and processes involved in M&A transactions which calls for greater liability on such entities in order to hold them accountable. The enforcement of the DPDP Act would subsume the governance regarding digital personal data while non-digital personal data would still fall under the Information Technology Act, 2000 (‘IT Act’) and Information Technology (Reasonable Security Practices and Procedures and Sensitive Personal Data or Information) Rules, 2011 (‘SPDI Rules’).    Breakdown of the Act The Act has recognised three central stakeholders, i.e. Data Fiduciary, Data Principal and Data Processor. Firstly, the Data Fiduciary determines the purpose for which the personal data will be processed. Secondly, the Data Principal is the individual whose data is in question. Lastly, Data Processors are those who process the data on behalf of the Data Fiduciary.   Obligations of Data Fiduciary The obligations of Data Fiduciary can be categorised into (i) Consent specific obligations; (ii) General obligations.  The data fiduciaries can process personal data only for lawful purposes. And this processing can be justified on two grounds, firstly, informed consent of the data principals and secondly, certain legitimate uses recognised under Section 7 of the Act. Such consent has to be explicit and can be attained via notice which has certain parameters such as it should convey what personal data will be collected and the purpose for the same.   A major respite for the Data fiduciary comes in the form of exemptions of its obligations for certain cases such as scheme of arrangement, merger, amalgamation, demerger and any reconstruction or transfer of undertaking. However such exemption is granted once a court, tribunal or other competent authority gives its approval to the transaction. By providing this the Act naturally creates a distinction in Section 17(1)(e) between those transactions that get approval such as scheme of arrangement or mergers and those that do not need any approval like acquisitions or share purchase transactions. The former transactions therefore are exempted while the latter will still need to comply with the provisions of the Act.   Implications for Various Parties in an M&A Transaction In a M&A transaction, both the seller and buyer companies are obligated as data fiduciary to comply with the Act, since they determine how data will be processed throughout the transaction. While entities like legal advisors are data processors acting on behalf of aforementioned data fiduciaries.  Seller Company The present scenario with most privacy policies follow the trend of using crafty, broad and vague consent requirements such as allowing the sharing of data with an intermediary, vendors or service providers but the Act will require all sellers to overhaul their current privacy policy with specified consent to accommodate any future potential merger or restructuring process. This is a viable precautionary measure for sellers to avoid any messy litigation while they are engaged in a major transaction. Additionally, compliances are enhanced against the selling company regarding serving consent notice which must instil an affirmative and clear action from the data principals which will require the seller company to incorporate an effective consent mechanism. Further Section 8 (6) of the Act compels the data fiduciary to inform the Board and each Data Principal in the event of a personal data breach which would lead to a negative market perception thereby affecting the seller’s valuation during an ongoing transaction. Now in the absence of a minimum threshold, even a minor breach can have huge implications due to the spread of misinformation in the market.   Buyer Company The major obligation for the Buyer Company would be the diversification of its Due Diligence drill. The expanded horizon of due diligence would entail checking the status of the seller company’s compliance with the data privacy laws which would include any sector-specific guidelines as well; ensuring that the seller company’s privacy policies are as per the law; the buyer will also have to run through the contractual obligations of the seller company. For example, where the seller company is a service provider its privacy obligations under the third-party contracts will have to be checked. In an M&A transaction, buyer companies have a level of protection against the seller companies by way of Representation & Warranties (‘R&W’) given by the latter for its legal compliances. Considering the wide ambit of privacy laws, it would be beneficial for the buyer companies to negotiate for a privacy-specific R&W, this would maximise the protection against hefty fines and penalties under the Act in case of any unanticipated breaches.   Legal Advisors Having seen that the sole responsibility for any breach would lie on the data fiduciary, it is very likely that the data fiduciaries would intend to be indemnified by the law firms, who process each transaction, for a breach caused by the latter. Therefore it is pertinent for law firms to negotiate such indemnity clauses while dealing with buyer or seller companies. Moreover, the law firms will

[By Lakshita Bhatt] The author is a student of Kes Shri Jayantilal H. Patel Law College.   Introduction  The much-anticipated merger between Sony Entertainment, herein referred to as “Sony,” and Zee Entertainment, herein referred to as “Zee,” faced numerous challenges that ultimately led to its unravelling fate. Although the merger had the potential to transform the Indian media and entertainment sector, internal conflicts and regulatory challenges stalled its progress. In this article, the author delves into the intricacies surrounding the unsuccessful merger between Sony and Zee Entertainment. Following that, the author clarifies how this merger, aimed at establishing dominance in the Indian market, encountered obstacles due to internal disputes, regulatory probes, and legal entanglements. In the end, the author elucidates the aftermath of this merger, highlighting broader concerns regarding corporate governance and financial resilience within the Indian Media sector.   Overview of Sony-Zee Merger  Initially valued at $10 billion in 2021, the merger aimed to create the dominant force in the Indian market by combining a wide range of channels and streaming platforms, with Sony holding the majority of the stake, adding up to 52.93%, and Zee holding 47.07% of the stake. However, tensions arose between Punit Goenka, the Managing Director (MD) and Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of Zee, and Sony Executives over the directorial position of the future merged entity. These internal disputes became a significant obstacle to the merger’s success. Investigations into alleged financial improprieties cast a shadow over the merger, adding to the challenges faced by both companies and eventually leading to the cancellation of the merger. As negotiations faltered, legal disputes emerged, with Sony demanding a $90 million termination fee for what they perceived as breaches of merger agreements. What could have been a billion-dollar revenue-generating merger has now become a legal dispute. Furthermore, it has broader implications for the media and entertainment industry in India. As Zee faced ongoing scrutiny and financial challenges, this left the company vulnerable in India’s booming streaming market, which is highly competitive and offers significant profit potential.  Legal Disputes and Regulatory Scrutiny   The merger between Zee Entertainment and Sony Entertainment India in September 2021 marked a pivotal moment, combining the strengths of Sony, a prominent Japanese media company, with Zee Entertainment to create a formidable entity in the media landscape. However, the trajectory of events took a tragic turn with the National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) accepting the insolvency proceedings against Zee on 22 February 2023, followed by a petition by IndusInd Bank citing a substantial default of Rs. 83.08 crore attributed to Subhash Chandra, Zee’s founder. This decision came after a series of prior events, including the approval of the merger with Bangla Entertainment by Zee’s Board of Directors in December 2021 and the subsequent filing for insolvency proceedings in February 2022, which was contested with an application for dismissal. Despite gaining approval from the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE), the National Stock Exchange (NSE), and the Competition Commission of India (CCI) in 2022, challenges persisted, notably with the IDBI bank initiating insolvency proceedings against Zee in December 2022, seeking to recover dues of Rs. 149.60 crores. The NCLT’s directive in May 2023, led to a re-evaluation of initial merger approval by the Stock Exchanges. Despite objections from creditors, the NCLT eventually approved the merger in August 2023, dismissing objections from entities like Axis Finance and JC Flower Asset Reconstruction Co.   However, the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) confirmatory order in August 2023 barred Punit Goenka, and Subash Chandra, founders of Zee, from holding any key positions within Zee. Amidst ongoing legal battles, a one-time settlement with JC Flower allowed Chandra to regain ownership of family assets in October 2023, while the Securities Appellate Tribunal (SAT) overturned SEBI’s order restraining Goenka from holding a directorial position in the company. Legal disputes continued with appeals lodged against NCLT’s approval by IDBI Trusteeship and others, culminating in notices issued by the NCALT in December 2023, though no staying on the merger process was granted during the proceeding. Additionally, a SEBI probe unveiled allegations of Rs. 1000 crore being signed from the Sony-Zee deal post-merger cancellation.  The aftermath of the merger’s incompletion   Transitioning from the legal disputes to the aftermath of the merger’s incompletion, the leadership struggles between Sony and Zee came to the forefront. Sony expressed a clear intention to bolster its reputation and leadership role within the amalgamated entity. Concurrently, Sony conveyed dissatisfaction with the alternative proposals preferred by Zee. Sony’s resolve for a stronger presence and leadership position in the merger enterprise was unmistakable, as evidenced by its proposal to designate NP Singh, Sony’s India head, as the CEO of the amalgamated entity. However, discord arose when Zee expressed disapproval of this arrangement. Subsequently, Sony announced the cessation of negotiations through an official statement, citing unmet merger conditions and a failure to meet the stipulated deadline. Legal action ensued, with Sony initiating litigation against Zee, seeking damages, amounting to approximately $ 90 million. Sony contends that Zee violated the merger agreement terms as the period for completion of the merger ended in January 2024 and still the merger was not completed, whereas Zee maintains its adherence to the agreement in good faith. Simultaneously, Zee has initiated legal action in both India’s and Singapore’s jurisdictions to enforce the merger terms and prompt Sony to fulfill its obligations. The matter now rests with the court to decide the fate of the proposed merger. Additionally, Zee is facing regulatory scrutiny, particularly from the Enforcement Directorate (ED), a government agency combating economic crime, concerning allegations of financial impropriety involving its founders. Sony’s departure precipitated a decline in Zee’s shares, following the merger’s dissolution, resulting in a significant sell-off. Zee’s shares depreciated by 30%, reportedly marking the largest decline in Sony stock values within the market over five years. Institutional investors, entities managing substantial capital on the client’s behalf, seek clarifications. Reports indicate ongoing deliberation, contemplating avenues such as an extraordinary general meeting, potentially determining Punit Goenka’s tenure. The Zee founders are under

[By Aditi Mishra] The author is a student of NMIMS School of Law, Mumbai.   Introduction During M&A transactions, it is common for the seller to make representations and warranties to the buyer on several aspects pertaining to the target company such as material contracts, financial statements, tax information, intellectual property, etc. A representation is a statement of fact relating to the past or the present state of business of the Target company. The seller makes these representations to induce the buyer to enter into an agreement. For example, a seller might represent that all licenses required to operate the business were obtained lawfully and are valid as on date. A warranty, on the other hand, is a statement or a promise of a condition concerning the Target company relating to the present or the future. Hence, a promise that the necessary licenses will not be cancelled in the future is a warranty. In recent years, representations and warranties (“R&W”) insurance has gained much traction in the M&A segment. This is because it helps mitigate some of the risks that come with acquiring a new asset or business. An R&W insurance policy can be buy-side or sell-side. From the seller’s perspective, R&W insurance provides a cushion against any damages that the seller might have to pay to the buyer upon breach. From the buyer’s perspective, R&W insurance helps reduce any concerns that the buyer might have regarding the seller’s credibility. AIG’s 2021 International Claims Intelligence Report provides interesting insights into the current claims in this space.[i] The AIG Report finds elevated levels of claims, in terms of both severity and number. One in every five policies are invoked, with the average claims size being as high as $19 million. As the R&W claims increase, the claims process becomes more complex, notes Lowenstein Sandler’s 2023 R&W Insurance Claims Report. [ii] In this background, the article discerns common issues faced by the policyholders during the R&W claims process, regarding recent case law developments in the US and the UK. Key R&W Insurance Claims Issues I. Establishing Breach of Warranty The first requisite to claim under an R&W policy is to establish the breach of a warranty. The onus to establish breach is on the policyholder and it is observed that they are sometimes unable to discharge this burden. Common hurdles faced in establishing a breach are issues with the construction of the warranty and the timing of the breach. Construction of Warranty If the breach complained of does not fall within the ambit of the warranty as properly construed, there will be no payout. Mc Dermott et al. note that for a successful claim, the seller’s warranties must align with the buyer’s objectives, and the relevant R&W policy should apply in case of breach of warranties.[iii] To illustrate this point – in the case of Finsbury Food Group Plc v Axis Corporate Capital UK Ltd [2023] EWHC 1559 (Comm)[iv] (“Finsbury case”), Finsbury claimed that a recipe change by the Seller, Ultrapharm (a bakery business), had breached the Trading Conditions Warranty contained in the Share Purchase Agreement. The Court noted that upon a true construction of the Trading Conditions Warranty, to qualify as a breach, the recipe change must constitute a “material adverse change” in the trading position of Ultrapharm. It was found that the recipe change was not a material adverse change as it was a part of the ordinary course of a bakery’s business. Further, currently in Novolex Holdings LLC (ongoing matter), the success of Novolex’s claim hinges on whether purchase orders constitute a “contract” under Delaware law, to amount to a breach of the Material Contracts Warranty under which the seller had warranted that no material customer had indicated it intended to terminate or modify an existing “contract”. [v] Timing of Breach The insurer will only accept the claim when the breach takes place pre-closing i.e., before the transaction is concluded.  In the Finsbury case, Finsbury alleged that price reductions offered by Ultrapharm to its chief customer, Marks & Spencer, breached the Price Reductions Warranty.  The Court found that there was no breach because the Warranty only covered price reductions since the Accounts Date, and the price reductions were offered to Marks & Spencer before that Date. The Court noted that the Warranty only intended to cover breaches between the period of the Accounts Date and the conclusion of the SPA. II. Coverage of R&W Policy – Knowledge Exclusion The coverage of the R&W policy has two aspects attached to it: first, the breach must be a covered breach under the R&W policy; and second, the loss must exceed the retention limits under the policy. Knowledge Exclusion R&W policies often exclude payout for breaches that the policyholder knew about before closing. The onus to prove an exclusion under the policy is on the insurer – and it is generally a high one, however, in the Finsbury case, “actual knowledge” was held to also include Nelsonian knowledge or wilful blindness. The case illustrates the importance of evidence and the role transaction leaders play in conducting due diligence. The Court rejected most of the claimant-policyholder’s evidence and observed that it was enough that the relevant persons at Finsbury had all the facts available to them, they did not need to be told that “2 + 2 equaled 4”. Retention Limits R&W policies prescribe certain self-insured retention limits i.e., the amount that the policyholder shall pay out of their pocket, before the policy starts paying out on a claim. For example, if the policyholder makes a claim of $15 million and the R&W policy stipulates a retention limit of $5 million – the policyholder will only be entitled to the portion of the claim falling outside the self-insured retention limit, which will be $10 million. As per Lowenstein Sandler’s 2023 R&W Insurance Claims Report, 61% of respondents reported claims that were entirely within the self-insured retention limit. [vi] In Ratajczak v. Beazley Solutions Ltd., 870 F.3d 650 (7th Cir. 2017), one of

[By Jose S Jose] The author is a student of The National University of Advanced Legal Studies (NUALS), Kochi.   INTRODUCTION In a significant stride within the entertainment industry, NCLT (National Company Law Tribunal) Mumbai recently granted approval for the merger of Zee Entertainment Enterprises and Culver Max Entertainment, previously known as Sony Pictures Networks India. This transformative green light not only ushers in the possibility of a formidable entertainment giant commanding about 26% of India’s entertainment market but also beckons the amalgamation of rich content portfolios and industry expertise. However, beneath this promising surface, a series of legal challenges have cast shadows over the merger’s realization, resulting in protracted delays. In this comprehensive analysis, we’ll first explore the intricacies of the Corporate Insolvency Resolution Process (CIRP) proceedings against Zee by NCLT Delhi and the subsequent SEBI (Securities and Exchange Board of India) ban on Punit Goenka, Managing Director of Zee, which have collectively contributed to this prolonged period of uncertainty. Beyond legal matters, we’ll discuss the background of the merger, the strategic agreement between Sony and Zee, and the potential benefits for shareholders and consumers. We’ll also navigate the legal hurdles and strategic intricacies of the Sony-Zee Entertainment merger, ultimately shedding light on the promising future it holds for India’s entertainment landscape. BACKGROUND While industry analysts speculate that the merger could potentially materialize within the next 2 to 3 months, the  timeline remains subject to various factors, introducing an element of uncertainty. In the dynamic landscape of mergers and acquisitions, anticipation is met with caution. The seeds of this partnership were sown back in 2021 when both entertainment juggernauts, Sony and Zee, forged an agreement to pool their expertise, digital assets, and extensive networks. With this ambitious alignment, a new chapter in the entertainment industry seems inevitable. Under the terms of this strategic agreement, the Sony group stands poised to claim a controlling stake of approximately 51% in the nascent entity. Meanwhile, the founders of Zee are set to retain a notable 4% share. The remaining equity will be thoughtfully allocated among the existing shareholders of Zee, allowing for a diversified ownership structure reflective of the company’s roots. This merger is a juncture of strategic relevance, offering manifold advantages for the new conglomerate. By synergizing their strengths, these companies aim to fortify their competitive edge in the market. Beyond boardrooms, shareholders too are poised to reap the rewards, as the merger is anticipated to translate into an augmented value of shares. At the same time, consumers are expected to be the ultimate beneficiaries, as the amalgamation promises an enhanced content palette, catering to an ever-evolving appetite for diverse entertainment experiences. This significant milestone is currently hindered by the legal obstacles that have raised significant concerns. LEGAL IMPEDIMENTS: CORPORATE INSOLVENCY RESOLUTION PROCESS (CIRP) A significant turning point emerged when IndusInd Bank set in motion the process for Corporate Insolvency Resolution Proceedings (CIRP) against Zee Entertainment. The initial salvo was fired with an application filed at the NCLT Mumbai, invoking Section 7 of the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC), complemented by Rule 4 of the Insolvency & Bankruptcy (Application to Adjudication Authority) Rules, 2016. Section 7 of the IBC confers the authority upon financial creditors to initiate the corporate insolvency resolution process against a corporate debtor before the NCLT. Meanwhile, Rule 4 of the Application to Adjudication Authority Rules outlines the procedural compass for filing such an application. In this legal overture, IndusInd Bank set its sights on resolving a financial debt that scaled beyond 90 crores—a threshold that bore implications for both Zee Entertainment and the proposed merger. The filing of this application injected a notable pause into the rhythm of the merger’s progression, casting a shadow of uncertainty over its timeline. The unfolding narrative took a series of twists as the legal pendulum swung back and forth. The order initiating the insolvency process issued by the NCLT Mumbai, which carried the resonance of a significant pronouncement, encountered an intermission when it was effectively stayed by an order from the NCLAT Delhi. However, the tide shifted once more as the same judicial forum, the NCLAT Delhi, ultimately terminated the CIRP order. The restoration of movement was prompted by a pivotal development—namely, the emergence of a settlement between the two principal entities involved: Zee Entertainment and IndusInd Bank. Remarkably, the settlement between the two has streamlined the process of merger. DISQUALIFICATION OF DIRECTOR BY SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE BOARD OF INDIA (SEBI) Empowered by the SEBI Act of 1992, the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) stands as a consequential statutory body entrusted with safeguarding investor interests and fostering the growth of India’s securities market. In a sweeping move, SEBI wielded its regulatory authority to impose bans on two significant figures within the Essel Group—the Chairman, Subhash Chandra, and Zee’s CEO, Punit Goenka. This decisive action was catalyzed by compelling evidence that illuminated a troubling pattern: both individuals had allegedly misappropriated funds through a misuse of their directorial positions. The reverberations of SEBI’s stance echoed beyond its initial pronouncement. This interim ban, effectuated with resolute intent, was upheld by the Securities Appellate Tribunal (SAT). This affirmation cemented the gravity of the allegations and the necessity of the actions undertaken. The consequences rippled across the corporate landscape, throwing into question the identity of the future director of the envisaged merged entity—a role previously slated for Zee’s incumbent CEO, Punit Goenka. This unforeseen hurdle cast a shadow over the merger’s strategic blueprint, inducing fluctuations in market sentiment. The tangible ramifications extended to Zee’s stock price, experiencing a noteworthy reduction. Mandated by SEBI, a probe has been set in motion with the express aim of unravelling the intricate threads that have woven this complex narrative. The investigation’s scope, ambitiously encompassing an 8-month timeline, serves as a testament to the gravity of the situation and the meticulous inquiry required. NCLT APPROVAL OF THE MERGER While the ink on the merger agreement between these two entities was penned and announced back in 2021, the long-awaited

[By Himanshu Verma] The author is an Associate Trainee.   Introduction To promote the ease of doing business and processing the scheme of arrangements involving startups, wholly owned subsidiaries, or small companies in a cost-effective and comparatively swift way, India endeavoured to establish a framework that facilitates and expedites the growth of these companies through the implementation of a fast-track merger process, effective from 15th December 2016. Thus, the Companies (Compromises, Arrangements, and Amalgamations) Rules, 2016 (“Principle Rules”) was introduced. This rule introduced an alternative pathway for select classes of companies to pursue mergers or amalgamations without the intervention of the National Company Law Tribunal (“Tribunal”). However, the fast-track process faced challenges such as delays and uncertainties. In order to overcome the limitations the Ministry of Corporate Affairs (“MCA”) introduced the Companies (Compromises, Arrangements, and Amalgamations) Amendment Rules, 2023 (“Amendment Rules”) on 15th May 2023. These Amendment Rules officially came into effect on 15th June 2023 (“effective date”). The introduction of specific timelines and deemed approval provisions in the Amendment Rules has brought some improvements. Nevertheless, as we chart this trajectory toward efficient mergers, certain areas are beckoned for further refinement. In this article, the author provides insights concerning the Amendment Rules and engages in a discussion about persisting issues, along with proposing potential approaches to navigate these issues. Necessity of Amendment The M&A landscape in the Indian startup ecosystem experienced a significant milestone in 2021, as a noteworthy 210 deals took place and the momentum continued in the year 2022, with an impressive count of 240 M&A deals. However, the process has not lived up to its fast-tracked designation, and the corporate organizations have shown reluctance to pursue the fast-track merger route due to uncertainty regarding eligibility criteria and delays in obtaining authorization from the Registrar of Companies (“RoC”) or Official Liquidator (“OL”), thus hindering the intended purpose of expediting mergers. Regrettably, it was observed that the reports submitted by the RoC, OL and the Regional Director (“RD”) issuance of confirmation orders took longer than expected, resulting in delays in processing applications. According to MCA 8th annual report, there were 118 pending applications as of 1st April 2021, and 369 applications were received between 1st April 2021 – 31st March 2022, out of which 164 remained pending as of 1st April 2022. Furthermore, as per the annual report 2022-23 on 1st November 2022, 135 applications were pending and 403 applications were received between 1st November 2021 – 31st October 2022, out of which 188 were pending as of 31st October 2022. These statistics highlighted the importance of reevaluating India’s framework for fast-track mergers while acknowledging the challenges that corporations were facing. Amendment Rules: The Current Paradigm To instil greater confidence among companies engaging in fast-track mergers in India, the recent Amendment Rules have introduced specific timelines for government authorities. Previously, in Principle Rules no time limit was prescribed for the RoC and OL to provide any objections or suggestions to the Central Government (“CG”). However, with the introduction of the necessary changes through sub-rule 5, time limits have been established. If the RoC and OL have no objection or suggestion to the proposed scheme, they must approve it within 30 days. In the event, objections are not submitted by the RoC and OL, it shall be deemed that there are no objections, and the RD has to approve the scheme within 15 days after the 30 days have expired, provided that the RD determines the scheme to be in the public or creditor’s best interests. The Amendment Rules have also imposed strict deadlines on the CG under sub-rule 6, if objections/suggestions are received but are not considered sustainable, then the CG has to confirm the scheme within 30 days after the expiration of the initial 30-day period. In the event the CG identifies that the scheme is not in the best interests of the public or creditors, it can file an application before the Tribunal within 60 days of receiving the scheme. Therefore, the imposition of these strict timelines under sub-rules 5 and 6 has effectively addressed the issue of unnecessary delays and brought predictability to the fast-track merger process, as now companies no longer have to endure extended periods of waiting caused by bureaucrats or government officials. Another critical issue was what happens if the CG does not approve the scheme or refer it to the Tribunal within the timeframe specified. Would any member or creditor of the company be able to file an application before the Tribunal in such a case? MCA had given this clarification by introducing the deemed approval provision in the Amendment Rules. This provision provides assurance as well as clarity by specifying that if the CG does not issue a confirmation order within a specified timeframe or refer the scheme to the Tribunal within 60 days of receiving the scheme, it will be deemed that the CG has no objection and will be obliged to issue a confirmation order. This deemed provision also gave a clear understanding of the timeframe within which the merger schemes would be reviewed and decided upon. Issues and Recommendations The introduction of specific timelines has resulted in a smoother and more time-bound process, although the Amendment Rules and current provisions governing fast-track mergers still lack clarity on certain aspects and require further attention. For instance, the settled principle in India that any law altering the rights or obligations of parties should be applied prospectively, companies applying for the fast-track process on or after the effective date will benefit from the new Amendment Rules. Therefore, the author suggests that there should be a committee to clear already pending applications, failure to comply may result in a backlog of pending cases, causing delays in decision-making and imposing an undue burden on the authorities. Another aspect of concern relates to the concept of public interest, while the Companies Act, 2013 (“the Act”) acknowledges the significance of public interest as highlighted in several sections of the Act, including sections 62(4), 129,

[Siddharth Sengupta & Tanay Dubey] The authors are students of National Law University Odisha.   Introduction Over the past decade, the Indian Government has implemented a range of measures to attract foreign direct investment (FDI) into the country, resulting in a notable upsurge in FDI inflows from $24 billion in 2012 to $49.3 billion in 2022. A key factor behind such a dramatic increase in FDI in the last few years is the growing cross-border M&A activities. In 2013, the Securities Exchange Board of India (SEBI) permitted the use of option agreements in M&A transactions. An ‘option’ clause within a Shareholder’s Agreement (SHA) is a provision that gives the parties a right to either purchase (in case of a call option) or sell (in case of a put option) shares at a pre-determined price, after a pre-determined period. SEBI’s notification, which was applicable only to domestic transactions, was followed by an amendment to Foreign Exchange Management Regulations by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), allowing foreign investors to include an optionality clause as an exit mechanism. The problem with the amendment was that in the case of the sale of securities via a put option, such an exit is without the component of “pre-determined rate” or ‘assured returns’, as per RBI’s amended Pricing Guidelines for FDI in India. Despite the law being largely clear, a ruling by the Madras High Court in January of this year, in the case of GPE (India) Limited v. Twarit Consultancy, has reignited the contentious discussion surrounding the implementation of put options which ensure assured returns. Deviating from an established line of precedents set by the Apex Court and other High Courts, the court, in this judgment, allowed assured returns under a put option between the parties, This article explores various aspects of cross-border M&A transactions and the use of put options as an exit mechanism. The article highlights the importance of assured returns during exits using put options and identifies the absence of them as a key hindrance in cross-border M&A transactions. Further, the article explores approaches that may be adopted as an alternative to put options in order to protect foreign investors under the current regulatory framework and the need for revision of pricing guidelines. Understanding Cross-Border M&A Transactions and the Importance of Assured Returns Cross-border M&A involves the integration of assets and operations from companies hailing from distinct jurisdictions. The term ‘acquisition’ pertains to the purchase of assets or stocks, either in whole or in part, of another company, thereby granting operational control over the whole or part of the said company; while the term ‘merger’ denotes the scenario wherein two independent companies are combined or consolidated into a single entity. Due to the international nature of cross-border M&A, investors face some unique challenges especially while investing in an Indian company. Under the FDI Policy, for example, there are sectoral caps in place for the amount of foreign investment in certain industries. These sectoral caps can be changed by the Union Government very easily, which can compel investors to sell their shares at a loss. Further, especially in FDI, the investor may not be able to get reliable information about the seller for a variety of reasons such as market data being opaque or hard to get. This is particularly prevalent in angel investments and investments into Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs). Abrupt changes in tax laws combined with the acute difficulty in enforcing contracts in India are further problems that make foreign investments in India challenging. Incorporating put options in SHAs would typically offer a significant remedy to these issues by eliminating the uncertainty related to the ‘future value’ of shares in foreign investments. Regardless of whether the share prices experience significant fluctuations, the investment would remain secure. This approach proves particularly advantageous for investments in developing economies, where investors would be guaranteed a pre-determined amount upon exercising the put option at its expiration, even in the event of a sharp decline in share prices. However, the RBI’s prohibition on ‘assured returns’ clauses in foreign investments has resulted in the inability of put options to serve this purpose. Globally, having a provision for assured returns in a put option is considered standard, as it is essential for effectively hedging risks in foreign investments, which is the primary purpose of having an option clause in the first place. Regulatory Considerations and Legal Frameworks in India In 1999, the Parliament, enacted the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) with the objective to facilitate external trade and payments and regulate the foreign exchange market in India. Gradually, restrictions vis-à-vis FDI were eased, resulting in a tremendous increase in the value of FDI each year. In furtherance of the above-stated objectives, the Securities Exchange Board of India (SEBI), in 2013, allowed put & call options in M&A transactions. Subsequent to SEBI’s approval, the RBI through its circular and notification, allowed optionality in equity shares and compulsorily and mandatorily convertible preference shares/debentures to be issued to a person resident outside India with the objective to provide greater freedom and flexibility to the parties concerned under the FDI framework. Foreign investors now had the choice to exit the investment after the one-year lock-in period by invoking the optionality clause, thus enabling the investee company to buy back securities. However, such an exit cannot be made at a pre-determined value i.e., without any assured returns. The investors are obliged to at the market price prevailing on the recognised stock exchanges (in the case of listed companies) or a price determined through internationally accepted pricing methodology (in the case of unlisted companies), thus, defeating the very purpose behind the revision of pricing guidelines. Interestingly, there is no such restriction placed in regulations relating to domestic investments. Thus, such restrictions as are placed under FEMA are redundant. Until the pricing guidelines are amended, it is imperative to explore alternative approaches to Assured Returns clauses in FDI transactions, to protect investor interest. Alternative Approaches for Investors and Need for a